Q.2. What were the causes, events and consequence of the War of Independence?
Causes of War of Independence
It is now an admitted fact that th mass uprising of the people of Indo-Pakistan against the British rule in 1857 was not a spontaneous reaction of alien rule but the emption of the volcano of discontent which had kept smoldering for about a century. The causes of the War of Independence were political, economic, religious, social and military.
(A). Political Causes
The English East India company got strongly implanted in the Sub-Continent after its historic victory over Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Plassey fought in 1757. Soon after wards in 1764 the British recorded another important triumph in the Battle of Buxar. They annexed many states.
1. Doctrine of Lapse
Lord Dalhousie applied Doctrine of Lapse for the expansion of the British Empire. According to this doctrine the rulers of the states were not allowed to adopt sons. As a result their states were annexed when they died.
2. Annoyance of Rules of States
Lord Dalhousie left no stone unturned for the expansion of the English territory. He annexed states on the grounds of Doctrine of Lapse and misgovernment. As such the rulers of the affected states like Sindh, Punjab, Jhansi and Oudh became sworn enemies of the Company.
3. Confiscation of Estates
It was a convention of the past rulers that the nobles were granted large estates. The British Government reversed this policy and confiscated thousands of such estates.
(B). Economic Causes of War
The new agrarian policy of the British, destruction of local industry, permanent settlements, large scale unemployment, monopoly of trade by the English and the Stamp Act were some important economic causes of the war.
1. New Agrarian Policy
In the agrarian the Zamindars were asked to provide documentary proof of their holdings. They were deprived of their lands when they failed to furnish documentary proof of their ancestral estates. In addition the rate of taxes on the lands was increased. This class was in the front rank when he war of Independence broke out in 1857.
2. Destruction of Local Industry
As a result of the Industrial revolution of England cheaper and superior goods flowed into the markets of the Sub-Continent. The local industry could not compete with the imported stuff. As a result the local industry suffered badly. This resulted in frustration among the lower classes.
3. Permanent Settlement
The after effects of the permanent settlement of land were very disastrous for the land owners. They had to deposit regularly a fixed amount which was not always possible. The defaulters were very often degraded.
4. Unemployment
The British did not trust the Indians. As a result they were not appointed on important jobs. This policy resulted in unemployment for the educated classes.
5. Domination of Trade by the English
The British enacted such tows which facilitated their trade in Indo-Pakistan. Many sea ports were declared free ports and custom duty on imported goods was wiredrawn. These steps mined the local industry.
6. Court Fee Stamps
The English Government declared court fee compulsory to be paid in the form of court stamps. Thus the people were denied the right of free justice.
(C). Religious Causes
1. Propagation of Christianity
Although at the outset the English had shown respect towards all religions yet with the passage of time they changed their mind and devised ways and means for the propagation of Christianity in Indo-Pakistan.
2. Introduction of New Inventions
In the first half of the 19th century the British introduced in Indo-Pakistan many inventions like railway, post and telegraph. Moreover they made English as medium of education. These inventions made the Indians suspicious of the intentions of the British.
3. Jihad Movement
Syed Ahmed Shaheed launched die Jihad Movement in the second decade of the 19th century. It was a sort of large scale effort by the Muslims to snatch freedom from alien rule. The Jihad Movement though failed to achieve immediate aims yet it succeeded in Kindling a flame of freedom.
4. Anti-Religion Laws
The British Government enacted many laws which were contradictory to the fundamentals of various religions of Indo-Pakistan.
(D). Social Causes
1. Mockery of Cultural Heritage
The British were afraid of the Muslim cultural heritage which was very rich in all aspects. The English wanted to prove their culture as superior to others. Thus they adopted a policy of ridiculing the Muslim culture. This attitude greatly agitated Muslim religious feelings.
2. Insulting treatment with the People
A hundred year rule over the Sub-Continent had given the English an air of superiority. They considered themselves a super creation and often resorted to insulting attitude towards the people of the Sub-Continent.
(E). Military Causes
1. Disbanded armies of annexed slates
The British disbanded the armies of the annexed states. This action left thousands of the local soldiers unemployed.
2. Dearth of English Troops
It is estimated that before the start of the war of Independence there were 3,11,000 native troops as against 40,000 European troops. This ratio tilted the balance in favor of the natives. As a result they were encouraged to launch the war of Independence.
3. Greased Cartridge
The use of greased cartridge proved as the immediate cause of the war of Independence. It was rumored that the cartridges were greased with the fat of the cow or pig. This situation agitated the religious feelings of both the Muslims and Hindu Soldiers.
Events of the War
The first incident of the war took place on 26th February 1857 when the native soldiers of the 19th Native infantry at Behrampur refused to used the greased cartridges. Then no 29th March 1857, Mangal Panda a native soldier of the 34th native infantry fired at his British officers. His fellows did not join him. As a result he was caught and hanged. However, all the 34th native infantry was disbanded on 6th May 1857. Thus the war was triggered on and the flames of war soon spread to all puts of the country.
1. Disputed Cartridges
In January 1857 the British announced that they were introducing a new rifle with a paper cartridge covered in grease to keep the powder dry. Before the cartridge could be loaded, the end had to be bitten off. However, it was rumoured the grease on the cartridge was made from the fat of both cows and pigs. The sepoys were so angered by this that they refused to use the new cartridges. In March a sepoy named Mangal Pandey defied his British officers and when his officers ordered to arrest him, he shot the major. Consequently he was executed. But the real trouble began two months later.
2. Meerut Rebellion
On April 24, 1857 sepoys in Meerut refused to use the new cartridges. It was treated as army rebellion and they were court martialled and put into prison, but their fellow soldiers broke into prison and freed them. Meerut was sacked and British officers and other Europeans were put to death. Then the soldiers marched to Delhi and captured it. The Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar became unifying symbol for the uprising, winning the support of both Muslim and Hindu.
3. Punjab, Frontiers and Sindh
As the reaction of Meerut rebellion, British rulers disarmed the local army people but the condition continued to deteriorate persistently. Unrest was spread in Punjab, Frontiers and Sindh. English killed thousands of local soldiers indiscriminately in Multan, Sahiwal, Jehlum, Hyderabad, Karachi, Pindi, Peshawar, Mardan and Hazara districts. The freedom fighters set British homes and offices to the fire. Sialkot prison was broken and the prisoners were freed. The fighters were assembled on the bank of Ravi and fought with the British troops under the command of Nicholson at Trimu Ghaat. Unfortunately the freedom fighters were defeated. In Punjab Rae Ahmed Kharal, Nizam Lohar, Jaggey and Jeony fought against British bravely.
4. Ceased British Rule
The revolt spread quickly and the British lost control of Mathura, Kanpur, Jhansi and Allahabad as well as Delhi. Lucknow was also taken and British rule ceased to exist throughout what is now called Uttar Pradesh.
5. Retrieval of Power
However British proved to be too powerful to be defeated by an uncoordinated uprising across many areas. In September 1857 Delhi was regained. Bahadur Shah surrendered peacefully, but his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Sultan and Mirza Abu Bakar were brutally murdered. Their heads were then presented to the Emperor as a lesson. Lucknow was also regained by the British in September 1857.
6. Jhansi
After the fall of Lucknow, the main centre of rebellion was Jhansi. Here the sepoys were led by Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi. She was assisted by Tatya Topee, an Indian general of great ability. But in June 1958 the British killed Lakshmibai (dressed as a man) in battle. Although Tatya Topee escaped, he was later captured and executed.
7. Bihar
Canner Singh was the leader of war of Independence in Bihar. Although he was 80 years old but he defeated English troops badly near Arrah but he died as a result of fatal wound.
The rulers of the states of Jind, Patiala, Gawaliar and Hyderabad and also some rich Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs helped British in taking the War of Independence to such tragic end.
Consequences of the War
Followings were the consequences of the war.
1. After the war the number of Europeans soldiers was increased in Indo Pakistan. A ratio of one and two was maintained with the native soldiers.
2. One ugly effect of the war of Independence was that the Muslims were subjected to oppression by the English. The British thought that the Muslims were responsible for the war or Independence. Accordingly the hand of repression fell more heavily on the Muslims than on the Hindus. Many of the leading Muslims were hanged.
3. The failure of the war greatly encouraged the Christian missionaries to resume the propagation of their religion.
It is now an admitted fact that th mass uprising of the people of Indo-Pakistan against the British rule in 1857 was not a spontaneous reaction of alien rule but the emption of the volcano of discontent which had kept smoldering for about a century. The causes of the War of Independence were political, economic, religious, social and military.
(A). Political Causes
The English East India company got strongly implanted in the Sub-Continent after its historic victory over Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Plassey fought in 1757. Soon after wards in 1764 the British recorded another important triumph in the Battle of Buxar. They annexed many states.
1. Doctrine of Lapse
Lord Dalhousie applied Doctrine of Lapse for the expansion of the British Empire. According to this doctrine the rulers of the states were not allowed to adopt sons. As a result their states were annexed when they died.
2. Annoyance of Rules of States
Lord Dalhousie left no stone unturned for the expansion of the English territory. He annexed states on the grounds of Doctrine of Lapse and misgovernment. As such the rulers of the affected states like Sindh, Punjab, Jhansi and Oudh became sworn enemies of the Company.
3. Confiscation of Estates
It was a convention of the past rulers that the nobles were granted large estates. The British Government reversed this policy and confiscated thousands of such estates.
(B). Economic Causes of War
The new agrarian policy of the British, destruction of local industry, permanent settlements, large scale unemployment, monopoly of trade by the English and the Stamp Act were some important economic causes of the war.
1. New Agrarian Policy
In the agrarian the Zamindars were asked to provide documentary proof of their holdings. They were deprived of their lands when they failed to furnish documentary proof of their ancestral estates. In addition the rate of taxes on the lands was increased. This class was in the front rank when he war of Independence broke out in 1857.
2. Destruction of Local Industry
As a result of the Industrial revolution of England cheaper and superior goods flowed into the markets of the Sub-Continent. The local industry could not compete with the imported stuff. As a result the local industry suffered badly. This resulted in frustration among the lower classes.
3. Permanent Settlement
The after effects of the permanent settlement of land were very disastrous for the land owners. They had to deposit regularly a fixed amount which was not always possible. The defaulters were very often degraded.
4. Unemployment
The British did not trust the Indians. As a result they were not appointed on important jobs. This policy resulted in unemployment for the educated classes.
5. Domination of Trade by the English
The British enacted such tows which facilitated their trade in Indo-Pakistan. Many sea ports were declared free ports and custom duty on imported goods was wiredrawn. These steps mined the local industry.
6. Court Fee Stamps
The English Government declared court fee compulsory to be paid in the form of court stamps. Thus the people were denied the right of free justice.
(C). Religious Causes
1. Propagation of Christianity
Although at the outset the English had shown respect towards all religions yet with the passage of time they changed their mind and devised ways and means for the propagation of Christianity in Indo-Pakistan.
2. Introduction of New Inventions
In the first half of the 19th century the British introduced in Indo-Pakistan many inventions like railway, post and telegraph. Moreover they made English as medium of education. These inventions made the Indians suspicious of the intentions of the British.
3. Jihad Movement
Syed Ahmed Shaheed launched die Jihad Movement in the second decade of the 19th century. It was a sort of large scale effort by the Muslims to snatch freedom from alien rule. The Jihad Movement though failed to achieve immediate aims yet it succeeded in Kindling a flame of freedom.
4. Anti-Religion Laws
The British Government enacted many laws which were contradictory to the fundamentals of various religions of Indo-Pakistan.
(D). Social Causes
1. Mockery of Cultural Heritage
The British were afraid of the Muslim cultural heritage which was very rich in all aspects. The English wanted to prove their culture as superior to others. Thus they adopted a policy of ridiculing the Muslim culture. This attitude greatly agitated Muslim religious feelings.
2. Insulting treatment with the People
A hundred year rule over the Sub-Continent had given the English an air of superiority. They considered themselves a super creation and often resorted to insulting attitude towards the people of the Sub-Continent.
(E). Military Causes
1. Disbanded armies of annexed slates
The British disbanded the armies of the annexed states. This action left thousands of the local soldiers unemployed.
2. Dearth of English Troops
It is estimated that before the start of the war of Independence there were 3,11,000 native troops as against 40,000 European troops. This ratio tilted the balance in favor of the natives. As a result they were encouraged to launch the war of Independence.
3. Greased Cartridge
The use of greased cartridge proved as the immediate cause of the war of Independence. It was rumored that the cartridges were greased with the fat of the cow or pig. This situation agitated the religious feelings of both the Muslims and Hindu Soldiers.
Events of the War
The first incident of the war took place on 26th February 1857 when the native soldiers of the 19th Native infantry at Behrampur refused to used the greased cartridges. Then no 29th March 1857, Mangal Panda a native soldier of the 34th native infantry fired at his British officers. His fellows did not join him. As a result he was caught and hanged. However, all the 34th native infantry was disbanded on 6th May 1857. Thus the war was triggered on and the flames of war soon spread to all puts of the country.
1. Disputed Cartridges
In January 1857 the British announced that they were introducing a new rifle with a paper cartridge covered in grease to keep the powder dry. Before the cartridge could be loaded, the end had to be bitten off. However, it was rumoured the grease on the cartridge was made from the fat of both cows and pigs. The sepoys were so angered by this that they refused to use the new cartridges. In March a sepoy named Mangal Pandey defied his British officers and when his officers ordered to arrest him, he shot the major. Consequently he was executed. But the real trouble began two months later.
2. Meerut Rebellion
On April 24, 1857 sepoys in Meerut refused to use the new cartridges. It was treated as army rebellion and they were court martialled and put into prison, but their fellow soldiers broke into prison and freed them. Meerut was sacked and British officers and other Europeans were put to death. Then the soldiers marched to Delhi and captured it. The Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar became unifying symbol for the uprising, winning the support of both Muslim and Hindu.
3. Punjab, Frontiers and Sindh
As the reaction of Meerut rebellion, British rulers disarmed the local army people but the condition continued to deteriorate persistently. Unrest was spread in Punjab, Frontiers and Sindh. English killed thousands of local soldiers indiscriminately in Multan, Sahiwal, Jehlum, Hyderabad, Karachi, Pindi, Peshawar, Mardan and Hazara districts. The freedom fighters set British homes and offices to the fire. Sialkot prison was broken and the prisoners were freed. The fighters were assembled on the bank of Ravi and fought with the British troops under the command of Nicholson at Trimu Ghaat. Unfortunately the freedom fighters were defeated. In Punjab Rae Ahmed Kharal, Nizam Lohar, Jaggey and Jeony fought against British bravely.
4. Ceased British Rule
The revolt spread quickly and the British lost control of Mathura, Kanpur, Jhansi and Allahabad as well as Delhi. Lucknow was also taken and British rule ceased to exist throughout what is now called Uttar Pradesh.
5. Retrieval of Power
However British proved to be too powerful to be defeated by an uncoordinated uprising across many areas. In September 1857 Delhi was regained. Bahadur Shah surrendered peacefully, but his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Sultan and Mirza Abu Bakar were brutally murdered. Their heads were then presented to the Emperor as a lesson. Lucknow was also regained by the British in September 1857.
6. Jhansi
After the fall of Lucknow, the main centre of rebellion was Jhansi. Here the sepoys were led by Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi. She was assisted by Tatya Topee, an Indian general of great ability. But in June 1958 the British killed Lakshmibai (dressed as a man) in battle. Although Tatya Topee escaped, he was later captured and executed.
7. Bihar
Canner Singh was the leader of war of Independence in Bihar. Although he was 80 years old but he defeated English troops badly near Arrah but he died as a result of fatal wound.
The rulers of the states of Jind, Patiala, Gawaliar and Hyderabad and also some rich Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs helped British in taking the War of Independence to such tragic end.
Consequences of the War
Followings were the consequences of the war.
1. After the war the number of Europeans soldiers was increased in Indo Pakistan. A ratio of one and two was maintained with the native soldiers.
2. One ugly effect of the war of Independence was that the Muslims were subjected to oppression by the English. The British thought that the Muslims were responsible for the war or Independence. Accordingly the hand of repression fell more heavily on the Muslims than on the Hindus. Many of the leading Muslims were hanged.
3. The failure of the war greatly encouraged the Christian missionaries to resume the propagation of their religion.
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